Engraving by Henry de Malvost in the book Le Satanisme et la Magie by Jules Bois depicting a Black Mass

Satanic ritual abuse (SRA, sometimes known as ritual abuse, ritualistic abuse, organized abuse, or sadistic ritual abuse) was the subject of a moral panic (often referred to as the Satanic Panic) that originated in the United States in the 1980s, spreading throughout many parts of the world by the late 1990s. Allegations of SRA involved reports of physical and sexual abuse of people in the context of occult or Satanic rituals. In its most extreme form, allegations involve a conspiracy of a worldwide SRA organization that includes the wealthy and powerful of the world elite in which children are abducted or bred for human sacrifices, pornography, and prostitution.

Nearly every aspect of SRA was controversial, including its definition, the source of the allegations and proof thereof, testimonies of alleged victims, and court cases involving the allegations and criminal investigations. The panic affected lawyers, 'therapists', and social workers' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse. Allegations initially brought together widely dissimilar groups, including religious fundamentalists, police investigators, child advocates, therapists, and clients in psychotherapy. The movement gradually secularized, dropping or deprecating the "Satanic" aspects of the allegations in favor of names that were less overtly religious such as "sadistic" or simply "ritual abuse" and becoming more associated with dissociative identity disorder and anti-government conspiracy theories.^{[citation needed]}

Initial publicity came via Lawrence Pazder's 1980 book Michelle Remembers and was sustained and popularized throughout the decade by the McMartin preschool trial. Testimonials, symptom lists, rumors, and techniques to investigate or uncover memories of SRA were disseminated through professional, popular, and religious conferences, as well as through the attention of talk shows, sustaining and further spreading the moral panic throughout the United States and beyond. In some cases, allegations resulted in criminal trials with varying results; after seven years in court, the McMartin trial resulted in no convictions for any of the accused, while other cases resulted in lengthy sentences, some of which were later reversed.^[1] Scholarly interest in the topic slowly built, eventually resulting in the conclusion that the phenomenon was a moral panic, which, as one researcher put it in 2017, "involved hundreds of accusations that devil-worshipping paedophiles were operating America's white middle-class suburban daycare centers."^[2]

Official investigations produced no evidence of widespread conspiracies or of the slaughter of thousands; only a small number of verified crimes have even remote similarities to tales of SRA.^[3]

History[edit]

Historical precedents[edit]

Blood libel accusations against Jews are considered historical precursors to the modern moral panic.^[4]

The SRA panic repeated many of the features of historical moral panics and conspiracy theories,^[5] such as the blood libel against Jews by Apion in the 30s CE,^[4] the wild rumors that led to the persecutions of early Christians in the Roman Empire, later allegations of Jewish rituals involving the killing of Christian babies and desecration of the Eucharist, and the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries.^[6] Allegations of horrific acts by outsider groups—including cannibalism, child murder, torture and incestuous orgies—may have served as a form of othering for minority groups, as well scapegoat explanations for complex problems in times of social disruption.^[5]^[4] Torture and imprisonment were used by authority figures to coerce confessions from alleged Satanists, confessions that were later used to justify their execution.^[4] Records of these older allegations were linked by contemporary proponents in an effort to demonstrate the contemporary Satanic cults were part of an ancient conspiracy of evil,^[7] though ultimately there is no evidence for devil-worshipping cults in Europe at any time.^[8] A more immediate precedent to the context of the United States was McCarthyism in the 1950s.^[6]^[9]^[10]^[11]

The underpinnings for the contemporary moral panic were found in a rise of five factors in the years leading up to the 1980s: the establishment of fundamentalist Christianity and political organization of the Moral Majority; the rise of the anti-cult movement which spread ideas of abusive cults kidnapping and brainwashing children and teens; the appearance of the Church of Satan and other explicitly Satanist groups that added a kernel of truth to the existence of Satanic cults; the development of the social work or child protection field, and its struggle to have child sexual abuse recognized as a social problem and a serious crime; and the popularization of posttraumatic stress disorder, repressed memory, and corresponding survivor movement.^[12]

Michelle Remembers and the McMartin preschool trial[edit]

Michelle Remembers, written by Michelle Smith and her husband, the psychiatrist Lawrence Pazder, was published in 1980. Now discredited, the book was written in the form of an autobiography, presenting the first modern claim that child abuse was linked to Satanic rituals.^[13] Pazder was also responsible for coining the term ritual abuse.^[14] Michelle Remembers provided a model for numerous allegations of SRA that ensued later in the same decade.^[13]^[15] On the basis of the book's success, Pazder developed a high media profile, gave lectures and training on SRA to law enforcement, and by September 1990 had acted as a consultant on more than 1,000 SRA cases, including the McMartin preschool trial. Prosecutors used Michelle Remembers as a guide when preparing cases against alleged Satanists.^[16] Michelle Remembers, along with other accounts portrayed as survivor stories, are suspected to have influenced later allegations of SRA,^[13]^[17] and the book has been suggested as a causal factor in the later epidemic of SRA allegations.^[18]^[19]^[20]

The early 1980s, during the implementation of mandatory reporting laws, saw a large increase in child protection investigations in America, Britain, and other developed countries, along with a heightened public awareness of child abuse. The investigation of incest allegations in California was also changed, with cases led by social workers who used leading and coercive interviewing techniques that had been avoided by police investigators. Such changes in the prosecution of cases of alleged incest resulted in an increase in confessions by fathers in exchange for plea bargains.^[21] Shortly thereafter, some children in child protection cases began making allegations of horrific physical and sexual abuse by caregivers within organized rituals, claiming sexual abuse in Satanic rituals and the use of Satanic symbols. These cases garnered the label "satanic ritual abuse" both in the media and among professionals.^[22]^[23] Childhood memories of similar abuse began to appear in the psychotherapy sessions of adults.^[24]^[25]

In 1983, charges were laid in the McMartin preschool trial, a major case in California, which received attention throughout the United States and contained allegations of satanic ritual abuse. The case caused tremendous polarization in how to interpret the available evidence.^[26]^[27] Shortly afterward, more than 100 preschools across the country became the object of similar sensationalist allegations, which were eagerly and uncritically reported by the press.^[28] Throughout the McMartin trial, media coverage of the defendants (Peggy McMartin and Ray Buckey) was unrelentingly negative, focusing only on statements by the prosecution.^[29] Michelle Smith and other alleged survivors met with parents involved in the trial, and it is believed that they influenced testimony against the accused.^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]

Kee MacFarlane, a social worker employed by the Children's Institute International, developed a new way to interrogate children with anatomically correct dolls and used them in an effort to assist disclosures of abuse with the McMartin children. After asking the children to point to the places on the dolls where they had allegedly been touched and asking leading questions, MacFarlane diagnosed sexual abuse in virtually all the McMartin children.^[34] She coerced disclosures by using lengthy interviews that rewarded discussions of abuse and punished denials. The trial testimony that resulted from such methods was often contradictory and vague on all details except for the assertion that the abuse had occurred.^[29] Although the initial charges in the McMartin case featured allegations of Satanic abuse and a vast conspiracy, these features were dropped relatively early in the trial, and prosecution continued only for non-ritual allegations of child abuse against only two defendants.^[35] After three years of testimony, McMartin and Buckey were acquitted on 52 of 65 counts, and the jury was deadlocked on the remaining 13 charges against Buckey, with 11 of 13 jurors choosing not guilty. Buckey was re-charged and two years later released without conviction.^[29]

Conspiracy accusations[edit]

In 1984 MacFarlane warned a congressional committee of scatological behavior and animals being slaughtered in bizarre rituals that children were forced to watch.^[36] Shortly after, the United States Congress doubled its budget for child-protection programs. Psychiatrist Roland Summit delivered conferences in the wake of the McMartin trial and depicted the phenomenon as a conspiracy that involved anyone skeptical of the phenomenon.^[37] By 1986, social worker Carol Darling argued to a grand jury that the conspiracy reached the government.^[37] Her husband Brad Darling gave conference presentations about a Satanic conspiracy of great antiquity which he believed now permeated American communities.^[18]

In 1985, Patricia Pulling joined forces with psychiatrist Thomas Radecki, director of the National Coalition on Television Violence, to create B.A.D.D. (Bothered About Dungeons and Dragons). Pulling and B.A.D.D. saw role-playing games generally and Dungeons & Dragons specifically as Satanic cult recruitment tools, inducing youth to suicide, murder, and Satanic ritual abuse.^[38] Other alleged recruitment tools included heavy metal music, educators, child care centers, and television.^[38] This information was shared at policing and public awareness seminars on crime and the occult, sometimes by active police officers.^[38] None of these allegations held up in analysis or in court. In fact, analysis of youth suicide over the period in question found that RPG players actually had a much lower rate of suicide than the average.^[38]

By the late 1980s, therapists or patients who believed someone had suffered from SRA could suggest solutions that included Christian psychotherapy, exorcism, and support groups whose members self-identified as "anti-Satanic warriors".^[39] Federal funding was increased for research on child abuse, with large portions of the funding allocated for research on child sexual abuse. Funding was also provided for conferences supporting the idea of SRA, adding a veneer of respectability to the idea as well as offering an opportunity for prosecutors to exchange advice on how to best secure convictions—with tactics including destruction of notes, refusing to tape interviews with children, and destroying or refusing to share evidence with the defense.^[40] Had proof been found, SRA would have represented the first occasion where an organized and secret criminal activity had been discovered by mental health professionals.^[41] In 1987 Geraldo Rivera produced a national television special on the alleged secret cults, claiming "Estimates are that there are over one million Satanists in [the United States and they are] linked in a highly organized, secretive network."^[42] Tapings of this and similar talk show episodes were subsequently used by religious fundamentalists, psychotherapists, social workers and police to promote the idea that a conspiracy of Satanic cults existed and these cults were committing serious crimes.^[43]

In the 1990s psychologist D. Corydon Hammond publicized a detailed theory of ritual abuse drawn from hypnotherapy sessions with his patients, alleging they were victims of a worldwide conspiracy of organized, secretive clandestine cells who used torture, mind control and ritual abuse to create alternate personalities that could be "activated" with code words; the victims were allegedly trained as assassins, prostitutes, drug traffickers, and child sex workers (to create child pornography). Hammond claimed his patients had revealed the conspiracy was masterminded by a Jewish doctor in Nazi Germany, but who now worked for the Central Intelligence Agency with a goal of worldwide domination by a Satanic cult. The cult was allegedly composed of respectable, powerful members of society who used the funds generated to further their agenda. Missing memories among the victims and absence of evidence was cited as evidence of the power and effectiveness of this cult in furthering its agenda. Hammond's claims gained considerable attention, due in part to his prominence in the field of hypnosis and psychotherapy.^[44]

Religious roots and secularization[edit]

Satanic ritual abuse brought together several groups normally unlikely to associate, including psychotherapists, self-help groups, religious fundamentalists and law enforcement.^[45] Initial accusations were made in the context of the rising political power of conservative Christianity within the United States,^[14] and religious fundamentalists enthusiastically promoted rumors of SRA.^[35] Psychotherapists who were actively Christian advocated for the diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder (DID); soon after, accounts similar to Michelle Remembers began to appear, with some therapists believing the alter egos of some patients were the result of demonic possession.^[15] Protestantism was instrumental in starting, spreading, and maintaining rumors through sermons about the dangers of SRA, lectures by purported experts, and prayer sessions, including showings of the 1987 Geraldo Rivera television special.^[46] Secular proponents appeared,^[47] and child protection workers became significantly involved. Law enforcement trainers, many themselves strongly religious, became strong promoters of the claims and self-described "experts" on the topic. Their involvement in child sexual abuse cases produced more allegations of SRA, adding credibility to the phenomenon.^[14] As the explanations for SRA were distanced from evangelical Christianity and associated with "survivor" groups, the motivations ascribed to purported Satanists shifted from combating a religious nemesis, to mind control and abuse as an end to itself.^[48] Clinicians, psychotherapists and social workers documented clients with alleged histories of SRA,^[14]^[49]^[50] though the claims of therapists were unsubstantiated beyond the testimonies of their clients.^[51]^[52]^[53]

International spread[edit]

In 1987 a list of "indicators" was published by Catherine Gould,^[54] featuring a broad array of vague symptoms that were ultimately common, non-specific and subjective, purported to be capable of diagnosing SRA in most young children.^[35] By the late 1980s allegations began to appear throughout the world (including Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia), in part enabled by English as a common international language and in the United Kingdom, assisted by Gould's list of indicators. Belief in SRA spread rapidly through the ranks of mental health professionals (despite an absence of evidence) through a variety of continuing education seminars, during which attendees were urged to believe in the reality of Satanic cults their victims, and not to question the extreme and bizarre memories uncovered. Proof was provided in the form of unconnected bits of information such as pictures drawn by patients, heavy metal album covers, historical folklore about devil worshipers, and pictures of mutilated animals. During the seminars, patients provided testimonials of their experiences and presenters stressed that recovering memories was important for healing.^[55]

In 1986, the largest symposium on child abuse in history was held in Australia, with addresses by vocal SRA advocates Kee MacFarlane, Roland Summit, Astrid Heppenstall Heger, and David Finkelhor.^[56]
In 1987, writings on the phenomenon appeared in the United Kingdom along with incidents featuring broadly similar accusations such as the Cleveland child abuse scandal; allegations of SRA in Nottingham resulted in the "British McMartin", advised in part by the British journalist Tim Tate's work on the subject.^[35] Along with the list of indicators, American conference speakers, pamphlets, source materials, consultants, vocabulary regarding SRA and allegedly funding were imported, which promoted the identification and counseling of British SRA allegations.^[35]^[47] The Nottingham investigation resulted in criminal charges of severe child abuse that ultimately had nothing to do with Satanic rituals, and was criticized for focusing on the irrelevant and non-existent Satanic aspects of the allegations at the expense of the severe conventional abuse endured by the children.^[57]
In 1989, San Francisco police detective Sandi Gallant gave an interview with a newspaper in the United Kingdom.^[58] At the same time, several other therapists toured the country giving talks on SRA, and shortly thereafter SRA cases occurred in Orkney, Rochdale, London, and Nottingham.^[59]
In 1992 charges were laid in the Martensville satanic sex scandal; charges were overturned in 1995 on the grounds of improper interviewing of the children.^[60]^[61]
A wave of SRA accusations appeared in New Zealand in 1991, and in Norway in 1992.^[62]
In 1998 Jean LaFontaine produced a book indicating allegations of SRA in the United Kingdom were sparked by investigations supervised by social workers who had taken SRA seminars in the United States.

Skepticism, rejection and contemporary existence[edit]

Media coverage of SRA began to turn negative by 1987, and the "panic" ended between 1992 and 1995.^[63]^[64] The release of the HBO made-for-TV movie Indictment: The McMartin Trial in 1995 re-cast Ray Buckey as a victim of overzealous prosecution rather than an abusive predator and marked a watershed change in public perceptions of satanic ritual abuse accusations.^[65] By 2003 allegations of ritual abuse were met with great skepticism and belief in SRA was no longer considered mainstream in professional circles;^[66]^[67] although the sexual abuse of children is a real and serious problem, allegations of SRA were essentially false. Reasons for the collapse of the phenomenon include the collapse of criminal prosecution against alleged abusers, a growing number of scholars, officials and reporters questioning the reality of the accusations, and a variety of successful lawsuits against mental health professionals.^[14] Astrophysicist and astrobiologist Carl Sagan devoted an entire chapter of his last book, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (1996) to a critique of claims of recovered memories of UFO abductions and satanic ritual abuse and cited material from the newsletter of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation with approval.^[68]

Some feminist critics of the SRA diagnoses maintained that, in the course of attempting to purge society of evil, the panic of the 1980s and 1990s obscured real child-abuse issues, a concern echoed by Gary Clapton.^[64] In England, the SRA panic diverted resources and attention from proven abuse cases; this resulted in a hierarchy of abuse in which SRA was the most serious form, physical and sexual abuse being minimized and/or marginalized, and "mere" physical abuse no longer worthy of intervention.^[69] In addition, as criticism of SRA investigation increased, the focus by social workers on SRA resulted in a large loss of credibility to the profession.^[70] SRA, with its sensational makeup of many victims abused by many victimizers, ended up robbing the far more common and proven issue of incest of much of its societal significance.^[71] The National Center for Abuse and Neglect devised the term religious abuse to describe exorcism, poisoning, and drowning of children in non-satanic religious settings in order to avoid confusion with SRA.^[72]^[73]

Some people still believe there is credence to allegations of SRA and continue to discuss the topic.^[74]^[75] Publications by Cathy O'Brien claiming SRA were the result of government programs (specifically the Central Intelligence Agency's Project MKULTRA) to produce Manchurian candidate-style mind control in young children were picked up by conspiracy theorists, linking belief in SRA with claims of government conspiracies.^[76] In the book Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me), authors Carol Tavris and Elliot Aronson cite ongoing belief in the SRA phenomenon despite a complete lack of evidence as demonstration of the confirmation bias in believers; it further points out that a lack of evidence is actually considered by believers in SRA as more evidence, demonstrating "how clever and evil the cult leaders were: They were eating those babies, bones and all."^[77] A Salt Lake City therapist, Barbara Snow, was put on probation in 2008 for planting false memories of satanic abuse in patients.^[78] One notable client of hers was Teal Swan.^[79]

Definitions[edit]

The term satanic ritual abuse is used to describe different behaviors, actions and allegations that lie between extremes of definitions.^[80] In 1988, a nationwide study of sexual abuse in US day care agencies, led by David Finkelhor, divided "ritual abuse" allegations into three categories—cult-based ritualism in which the abuse had a spiritual or social goal for the perpetrators, pseudo-ritualism in which the goal was sexual gratification and the rituals were used to frighten or intimidate victims, and psychopathological ritualism in which the rituals were due to mental disorders.^[81] Subsequent investigators^[who?] have expanded on these definitions and also pointed to a fourth alleged type of Satanic ritual abuse, in which petty crimes with ambiguous meaning (such as graffiti or vandalism) generally committed by teenagers were attributed to the actions of Satanic cults.^[82]^[83]^[84]

By the early 1990s, the phrase "Satanic ritual abuse" was featured in media coverage of ritualistic abuse but its use decreased among professionals in favor of more nuanced terms such as multi-dimensional child sex rings,^[51] ritual/ritualistic abuse,^[85] organized abuse^[86] or sadistic abuse,^[49] some of which acknowledged the complexity of abuse cases with multiple perpetrators and victims without projecting a religious framework onto perpetrators. The latter in particular failed to substantively improve on or replace "Satanic" abuse as it was never used to describe any rituals except the Satanic ones that were the core of SRA allegations. Abuse within the context of Christianity, Islam, or any other religions failed to enter the SRA discourse.^[87]

Cult-based abuse[edit]

Allegation of cult-based abuse is the most extreme scenario of SRA.^[88] During the initial period of interest starting in the early 1980s the term was used to describe a network of Satan-worshipping, secretive intergenerational cults that were supposedly part of a highly organized conspiracy engaged in criminal behaviors such as forced prostitution, drug distribution and pornography. These cults were also thought to sexually abuse and torture children in order to coerce them into a lifetime of Devil worship.^[89] Other allegations included bizarre sexual acts such as necrophilia, forced ingestion of semen, blood and feces, cannibalism, orgies, liturgical parody such as pseudosacramental use of feces and urine; infanticide, sacrificial abortions to eat fetuses and human sacrifice; satanic police officers who covered up evidence of SRA crimes and desecration of Christian graves.^[88]^[90] No evidence of any of these claims has ever been found;^[51]^[89]^[91]^[92] the proof presented by those who alleged the reality of cult-based abuse primarily consisted of the memories of adults recalling childhood abuse,^[17]^[88] the testimony of young children^[17]^[88]^[93] and extremely controversial confessions.^[88] The idea of a murderous Satanic conspiracy created a controversy dividing the professional child abuse community at the time, though no evidence has been found to support allegations of a large number of children being killed or abused in Satanic rituals.^[91]^[94] From a law enforcement perspective, an intergenerational conspiracy dedicated to ritual sacrifice whose members remain completely silent, make no mistakes and leave no physical evidence is unlikely; cases of what the media incorrectly perceived as actual cult sacrifices (such as the 1989 case of Adolfo Constanzo) have supported this idea.^[51]

Criminal and delusional satanism[edit]

A third variation of ritual abuse involves non-religious ritual abuse in which the rituals were delusional or obsessive.^[81] There are incidents of extreme sadistic crimes that are committed by individuals, loosely organized families and possibly in some organized cults, some of which may be connected to Satanism, though this is more likely to be related to sex trafficking; though SRA may happen in families, extended families and localized groups, it is not believed to occur in large, organized groups.^[95]

Acting out[edit]

Investigators considered graffiti such as the pentagram to be evidence of a Satanic cult. Ambiguous crimes in which actual or erroneously believed symbols of Satanism appear have also been claimed as part of the SRA phenomenon, though in most cases the crimes cannot be linked to a specific belief system; minor crimes such as vandalism, trespassing and graffiti were often found to be the actions of teenagers who were acting out.^[82]^[83]^[84]

Polarization[edit]

There was never any consensus on what actually constituted Satanic ritual abuse.^[96] This lack of a single definition, as well as confusion between the meanings of the term ritual (religious versus psychological) allowed a wide range of allegations and evidence to be claimed as a demonstration of the reality of SRA claims, irrespective of which "definition" the evidence supported.^[31] Acrimonious disagreements between groups who supported SRA allegations as authentic and those criticizing them as unsubstantiated resulted in an extremely polarized discussion with little middle ground.^[97]^[88] The lack of credible evidence for the more extreme interpretations often being seen as evidence of an effective conspiracy rather than an indication that the allegations are unfounded. The religious beliefs or atheism of the disputants have also resulted in different interpretations of evidence, and as well as accusations of those who reject the claims being "anti-child".^[88]^[98] Both believers and skeptics have developed networks to disseminate information on their respective positions.^[99] One of the central themes of the discussion among English child abuse professionals was the assertion that people should simply "believe the children", and that the testimony of children was sufficient proof, which ignored the fact that in many cases the testimony of children was interpreted by professionals rather than the children explicitly disclosing allegations of abuse. In some cases this was simultaneously presented with the idea that it did not matter if SRA actually existed, that the empirical truth of SRA was irrelevant, that the testimony of children was more important than that of doctors, social workers and the criminal justice system.^[98]

Evidence[edit]

The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect conducted a study led by University of California psychologist Gail Goodman, which found that among 12,000 accusations of satanic ritual abuse, there was no evidence for "a well-organized intergenerational satanic cult, who sexually molested and tortured children", although there was "convincing evidence of lone perpetrators or couples who say they are involved with Satan or use the claim to intimidate victims."^[3] One such case Goodman studied involved "grandparents [who] had black robes, candles, and Christ on an inverted crucifix—and the children had chlamydia, a sexually transmitted disease, in their throats", according to the report by a district attorney.^[3]

The evidence for SRA was primarily in the form of testimonies from children who made allegations of SRA, and adults who claim to remember abuse during childhood,^[100]^[101] that may have been forgotten and recovered during therapy.^[17]^[88]^[102]^[103]^[104]^[105] With both children and adults, no corroborating evidence has been found for anything except pseudosatanism in which the satanic and ritual aspects were secondary to and used as a cover for sexual abuse.^[102] Despite this lack of objective evidence, and aided by the competing definitions of what SRA actually was, proponents claimed SRA was a real phenomenon throughout the peak and during the decline of the moral panic.^[103]^[106] Despite allegations appearing in the United States, Netherlands, Sweden, New Zealand and Australia, no material evidence has been found to corroborate allegations of organized cult-based abuse that practices human sacrifice and cannibalism.^[105]^[107] Though trauma specialists frequently claimed the allegations made by children and adults were the same, in reality the statements made by adults were more elaborate, severe, and featured more bizarre abuse. In 95 percent of the adults' cases, the memories of the abuse were recovered during psychotherapy.^[108]

For several years, a conviction list assembled by the Believe the Children advocacy group was circulated as proof of the truth of satanic ritual abuse allegations, though the organization itself no longer exists and the list itself is "egregiously out of date".^[109]

Investigations[edit]

Two investigations were carried out to assess the evidence for SRA. In the United Kingdom, a government report produced no evidence of SRA, but several examples of false satanists faking rituals to frighten their victims. In the United States, evidence was reported but was based on a flawed methods with an overly liberal definition of a substantiated case.

United Kingdom[edit]

A British study published in 1996 found 62 cases of alleged ritual abuse reported to researchers by police, social and welfare agencies from the period of 1988 to 1991, representing a tiny proportion of extremely high-profile cases compared to the total number investigated by the agencies.^[110] Anthropologist Jean LaFontaine spent several years researching ritual abuse cases in Britain at the behest of the government, finding that all of the cases of alleged satanic ritual abuse that could be substantiated were cases where the perpetrators' goal was sexual gratification rather than religious worship.^[111] Producing several reports and the 1998 book Speak of the Devil, after reviewing cases reported to police and children's protective services throughout the country LaFontaine concluded that the only rituals she uncovered were those invented by child abusers to frighten their victims or justify the sexual abuse. In addition, the sexual abuse occurred outside of the rituals, indicating the goal of the abuser was sexual gratification rather than ritualistic or religious. In cases involving satanic abuse, the satanic allegations by younger children were influenced by adults, and the concerns over the satanic aspects were found to be compelling due to cultural attraction of the concept, but distracting from the actual harm caused to the abuse victims.^[31]^[112]

In more recent years, discredited allegations of SRA have been levelled against Jimmy Saville during the posthumous investigation into his sexual abuse of children,^[113] as well as against former Prime Minister Ted Heath (who was previously falsely accused of SRA during his lifetime).^[114]

United States[edit]

David Finkelhor completed an investigation of child sexual abuse in daycares in the United States, and published a report in 1988. The report found 270 cases of sexual abuse, of which 36 were classified as substantiated cases of ritual abuse.^[81] Mary de Young has pointed out that the report's definition of "substantiated" was overly liberal as it required only that one agency had decided that abuse had occurred, even if no action was taken, no arrests made, no operating licenses suspended. In addition, multiple agencies may have been involved in each case (including the FBI, local police, social services agencies and childhood protective services in many cases), with wide differences in suspicion and confirmation, often in disagreement with each other. Finkelhor, upon receiving a "confirmation", would collect information from whoever was willing or interested to provide it and did not independently investigate the cases, resulting in frequent errors in their conclusions. No data is provided beyond case studies and brief summaries.^[115] Three other cases considered corroborating by the public^[27]—the McMartin preschool trial, the Country Walk case and the murders in Matamoros, by Adolfo Constanzo—ultimately failed to support the existence of SRA. The primary witness in the Country Walk case repeatedly made, then withdrew accusations against her husband (who remains imprisoned As of 2018) amid unusual and coercive inquiries by her lawyer and a psychologist.^[1] The Matamoros murders produced the bodies of 12 adults who were ritually sacrificed by a drug gang inspired by the film The Believers, but did not involve children or sexual abuse. The McMartin case resulted in no convictions and was ultimately based on accusations by children with no proof beyond their coerced testimonies.^[66] A 1996 investigation of more than 12,000 allegations of satanic, ritual and religious abuse resulted in no cases that were considered factual or corroborated.^[116]

Patient allegations[edit]

The majority of adult testimonials occurred as a result of adults undergoing psychotherapy, in most cases therapy designed to elicit memories of SRA.^[48]^[117] Therapists claimed the pain expressed by the patients, internal consistency of their stories and similarity of allegations by different patients was evidence for SRA, but despite this, the disclosures of patients never resulted in any corroboration;^[118] Allegations of alleged victims that were obtained from mental health practitioners lacked verifiable evidence, were anecdotal and involved incidents that were years or decades old.^[119] The concern for therapists revolved around the pain of their clients, which is for them more important than the truth of their patients' statements.^[99] A sample of 29 patients in a medical clinic reporting SRA found no corroboration of the claims in medical records or in discussion with family members.^[120] and a survey of 2,709 American therapists found the majority of allegations of SRA came from only sixteen therapists, suggesting that the determining factor in a patient making allegations of SRA was the therapist's predisposition.^[121] Further, the alleged similarities between patient accounts (particularly between adults and children) turned out to be illusory upon review, with adults describing far more elaborate, severe and bizarre abuse than children. Bette Bottoms, who reviewed hundreds of claims of adult and child abuse, described the ultimate evidence for the abuse as "astonishingly weak and ambiguous" particularly given the severity of the alleged abuse. Therapists however, were found to believe patients more as the allegations became more bizarre and severe.^[108]

In cases where patients made claims that were physically impossible, or evidence found by police was contradictory, the details reported will often change. If patients pointed to a spot where a body was buried, but no body was found and no earth was disturbed, therapists resort to special pleading, saying the patient was hypnotically programmed to direct investigators to the wrong location, or that they were fooled by the cult into believing a crime was not committed. If alleged bodies were cremated and police point out ordinary fires are inadequate to completely destroy a body, stories include special industrial furnaces. The patients' allegations change and creatively find "solutions" to objections.^[122]

Children's allegations[edit]

The second group to make allegations of SRA were young children. During the "satanic panic" of the 1980s, the techniques used by investigators to gather evidence from witnesses, particularly young children, evolved to become very leading, coercive and suggestive, pressuring young children to provide testimony and refusing to accept denials while offering inducements that encouraged false disclosures.^[48]^[123]^[40] The interviewing techniques used were the factors believed to have led to the construction of the bizarre disclosures of SRA by the children^[117]^[124] and changes to forensic and interviewing techniques since that time has resulted in a disappearance of the allegations.^[14] Analysis of the techniques used in two key cases (the McMartin preschool and Wee Care Nursery School trials) concluded that the children were questioned in a highly suggestive manner. Compared with a set of interviews from Child Protective Services, the interviews from the two trials were "significantly more likely to (a) introduce new suggestive information into the interview, (b) provide praise, promises, and positive reinforcement, (c) express disapproval, disbelief, or disagreement with children, (d) exert conformity pressure, and (e) invite children to pretend or speculate about supposed events."^[123]

Specific allegations from the cases included:

Seeing witches fly; travel in a hot air balloon; abuse and travel through tunnels;^[125] identifying actor Chuck Norris from a series of pictures as an abuser;^[126] orgies at car washes and airports, children being flushed down toilets to secret rooms where they would be abused, then cleaned up and presented back to their unsuspecting parents^[125]^[127]^[128] (McMartin preschool trial, no forensic evidence was found to support these claims)
Being raped with knives (including a 12-inch blade^[129]), sticks, forks, and magic wands; assault by a clown in a magic room; being forced to drink urine; tied naked to a tree^[130] (Fells Acres Day Care Center preschool trial; no forensic evidence was found to support these claims)
Ritual murder of babies; children taken out on boats and thrown overboard; trips in hot air balloons;^[131] babies were thrown against walls; children were penetrated with knives and forks; the walls and floors of the center's music room were spread with urine and feces^[132] (Little Rascals day care sexual abuse trial; no forensic evidence was found to support these claims)
Forced to act in child pornography and used for child prostitution; tortured; made to watch snuff films^[129] (Kern County child abuse cases; no child pornography was ever found to substantiate these accusations)
the mentally handicapped abuser who suffered from Noonan syndrome drank human blood in satanic rituals; abducted the children despite being unable to drive;^[133] forced the children to eat urine and feces; abducted the children to secret rooms; committed violent sexual assaults and beatings; killed a giraffe, rabbit and elephant and drank their blood in front of the children;^[134] (Faith Chapel Church ritual abuse case; no forensic evidence was found to support these claims)

A variety of these allegations resulted in criminal convictions; in an analysis of these cases Mary de Young found that many had had their convictions overturned. Of 22 day care employees and their sentences reviewed in 2007, three were still incarcerated, eleven had charges dismissed or overturned, and eight were released before serving their full sentences. Grounds included technical dismissals, constitutional challenges and prosecutorial misconduct.^[96]

Skepticism[edit]

As a moral panic[edit]

SRA and the so-called "Satanic panic" have been called a moral panic^[135] and compared to the blood libel and witch-hunts of historical Europe,^[5]^[9]^[63]^[136]^[137] and McCarthyism in the United States during the 20th century.^[40]^[138]^[139]^[140] Stanley Cohen, who originated the term moral panic, called the episode "one of the purest cases of moral panic."^[141] The initial investigations of SRA were performed by anthropologists and sociologists, who failed to find evidence of SRA actually occurring; instead they concluded that SRA was a result of rumors and folk legends that were spread by "media hype, Christian fundamentalism, mental health and law enforcement professionals and child abuse advocates."^[97] Sociologists and journalists noted the vigorous nature with which some evangelical activists and groups were using claims of SRA to further their religious and political goals.^[140] Other commentators suggested that the entire phenomenon may be evidence of a moral panic over Satanism and child abuse.^[142] Skeptical explanations for allegations of SRA have included an attempt by radical feminists to undermine the nuclear family,^[143] a backlash against working women,^[40] homophobic attacks on gay childcare workers,^[144] a universal need to believe in evil,^[10] fear of alternative spiritualities,^[92] "end of the millennium" anxieties,^[145] or a transient form of temporal lobe epilepsy.^[146]

In his book Satanic Panic, the 1994 Mencken Award winner for Best Book presented by the Free Press Association, ^[147] Jeffery Victor writes that, in the United States, the groups most likely to believe rumors of SRA are rural, poorly educated, religiously conservative White blue-collar families with an unquestioning belief in American values who feel significant anxieties over job loss, economic decline and family disintegration. Victor considers rumours of SRA a symptom of a moral crisis and a form of scapegoating for economic and social ills.^[148]

Origins of the rumors[edit]

Information about SRA claims spread through conferences presented to religious groups, churches and professionals such as police forces and therapists as well as parents. These conferences and presentations served to organize agencies and foster communication between groups, maintaining and spreading disproven or exaggerated stories as fact.^[149] Members of local police forces organized into loose networks focused on cult crimes, some of whom billed themselves as "experts" and were paid to speak at conferences throughout the United States. Religious revivalists also took advantage of the rumors and preached about the dangers of Satanism to youth and presented themselves at paid engagements as secular experts.^[150] At the height of the panic, the highly emotional accusations and circumstances of SRA allegations made it difficult to investigate the claims, with the accused being assumed as guilty and skeptics becoming co-accused during trials, and trials moving forward based solely on the testimony of very young children without corroborating evidence.^[93] No forensic or corroborating evidence has ever been found for religiously based cannibalistic or murderous SRA, despite extensive investigations.^[31]^[97]^[117]^[151] The concern and reaction expressed by various groups regarding the seriousness or threat of SRA has been considered out of proportion to the actual threat by satanically motivated crimes, and the rare crime that exists that may be labeled "satanic" does not justify the existence of a conspiracy or network of religiously motivated child abusers.^[152]^[153]

Scholarly and law enforcement investigations[edit]

Jeffrey Victor reviewed 67 rumors about SRA in the United States and Canada reported in newspapers or television, and found no evidence supporting the existence of murderous satanic cults.^[154] LaFontaine states that cases of alleged SRA investigated in the United Kingdom were reviewed in detail and the majority were unsubstantiated; three were found to involve sexual abuse of children in the context of rituals, but none involved the Witches' Sabbath or devil worship that are characteristic of allegations of SRA.^[155] LaFontaine also states that no material evidence has been forthcoming in allegations of SRA; no bones, bodies or blood, in either the United States or Britain.

Kenneth Lanning, an FBI expert in the investigation of child sexual abuse,^[156] has stated that pseudo-Satanism may exist but there is "little or no evidence for ... large-scale baby breeding, human sacrifice, and organized satanic conspiracies".^[51]

There are many possible alternative answers to the question of why victims are alleging things that don't seem to be true. ... I believe that there is a middle ground—a continuum of possible activity. Some of what the victims allege may be true and accurate, some may be misperceived or distorted, some may be screened or symbolic, and some may be "contaminated" or false. The problem and challenge, especially for law enforcement, is to determine which is which. This can only be done through active investigation. I believe that the majority of victims alleging "ritual" abuse are in fact victims of some form of abuse or trauma.^[51]

Lanning produced a monograph in 1994 on SRA aimed at child protection authorities, which contained his opinion that despite hundreds of investigations no corroboration of SRA had been found. Following this report, several convictions based on SRA allegations were overturned and the defendants released.^[59]

Reported cases of SRA involve bizarre activities, some of which are impossible (like people flying),^[123] that makes the credibility of victims of child sexual abuse questionable. In cases where SRA is alleged to occur, Lanning describes common dynamics of the use of fear to control multiple young victims, the presence of multiple perpetrators and strange or ritualized behaviors, though allegations of crimes such as human sacrifice and cannibalism do not seem to be true. Lanning also suggests several reasons why adult victims may make allegations of SRA, including "pathological distortion, traumatic memory, normal childhood fears and fantasies, misperception, and confusion".^[157]

Court cases[edit]

Allegations of SRA have appeared throughout the world. The failure of certain high-profile legal cases generated worldwide media attention, and came to play a central feature in the growing controversies over child abuse, memory and the law.^[158]^{[verification needed]} The testimony of children in these cases may have led to their collapse, as juries came to believe that the sources of the allegations were the use of suggestive and manipulative interviewing techniques, rather than actual events. Research since that time has supported these concerns and without the use of these techniques it is unlikely the cases would ever have reached trial.^[14]

In one analysis of 36 court cases involving sexual abuse of children within rituals, only one quarter resulted in convictions, all of which had little to do with ritual sex abuse.^[149] In a 1994 survey of more than 11,000 psychiatric and police workers throughout the US, conducted for the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, researchers investigated approximately 12,000 accusations of group cult sexual abuse based on satanic ritual. The survey found no substantiated reports of well-organized satanic rings of people who sexually abuse children, but did find incidents in which the ritualistic aspects were secondary to the abuse and were used to intimidate victims.^[159] Victor reviewed 21 court cases alleging SRA between 1983 and 1987 in which no prosecutions were obtained for ritual abuse.^[160]

During the early 1980s, some courts attempted ad hoc accommodations to address the anxieties of child witnesses in relation to testifying before defendants. Screens or CCTV technology are a common feature of child sexual assault trials today; children in the early 1980s were typically forced into direct visual contact with the accused abuser while in court. SRA allegations in the courts catalyzed a broad agenda of research into the nature of children's testimony and the reliability of their oral evidence in court. Ultimately in SRA cases, the coercive techniques used by believing district attorneys, therapists and police officers were critical in establishing, and often resolving, SRA cases. In courts, when juries were able to see recordings or transcripts of interviews with children, the alleged abusers were acquitted. The reaction by successful prosecutors, spread throughout conventions and conferences on SRA, was to destroy, or fail to take notes of the interviews in the first place.^[161] One group of researchers concluded that children usually lack the sufficient amount of "explicit knowledge" of satanic ritual abuse to fabricate all of the details of an SRA claim on their own.^[162] However, the same researchers also concluded that children usually have the sufficient amount of general knowledge of "violence and the occult" to "serve as a starting point from which ritual claims could develop."^[162]

In 2006, psychologist and attorney Christopher Barden drafted an amicus curiae brief to the Supreme Court of California signed by nearly 100 international experts in the field of human memory emphasizing the lack of credible scientific support for repressed and recovered memories.^[163]

Dissociative identity disorder[edit]

SRA has been linked to dissociative identity disorder (DID, also known as multiple personality disorder or MPD),^[24]^[164] with many DID patients also alleging cult abuse.^[165]^[166] The first person to write a first-person narrative about SRA was Michelle Smith, co-author of Michelle Remembers; Smith was diagnosed with DID by her therapist and later husband Lawrence Pazder.^[167] Psychiatrists involved with the International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (then called the International Society for the Study of Multiple Personality and Dissociation), especially associate editor Bennett G. Braun, uncritically promoted the idea that actual groups of persons who worshiped Satan were abusing and ritually sacrificing children and, furthermore, that thousands of persons were recovering actual memories of such abuse during therapy,^[168] openly discussing such claims in the organization's journal, Dissociation. In a 1989 editorial, Dissociation editor-in-chief Richard Kluft likened clinicians who did not speak of their patients with recovered memories of SRA to the "good Germans" during the Holocaust.^[169] One particularly controversial article found parallels between SRA accounts and pre-Inquisition historical records of satanism, hence claimed to find support for the existence of ancient and intergenerational satanic cults.^[170] A review of these claims by sociologist Mary de Young in a 1994 Behavioral Sciences and the Law article noted that the historical basis for these claims, and in particular their continuity of cults, ceremonies and rituals was questionable.^[45] However at a conference in November 1990, psychiatrist and researcher Frank Putnam, then chief of the Dissociative Disorders Unit of the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda, Maryland, led a plenary session panel that proved to be the first public presentation of psychiatric, historical and law enforcement skepticism concerning SRA claims. Other members of the panel included psychiatrist George Ganaway, anthropologist Sherrill Mulhern, and psychologist Richard Noll.^[171] Putnam, a skeptic, was viewed by SRA advocates in attendance as using fellow skeptics such as Noll and Mulhern as allies in a disinformation campaign to split the SRA-believing community.^[172]

A survey investigating 12,000 cases of alleged SRA found that most were diagnosed with DID as well as post-traumatic stress disorder.^[116] The level of dissociation in a sample of women alleging SRA was found to be higher than a comparable sample of non-SRA peers, approaching the levels shown by patients diagnosed with DID.^[173] A sample of patients diagnosed with DID and reporting childhood SRA also present other symptoms including "dissociative states with satanic overtones, severe post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt, bizarre self abuse, unusual fears, sexualization of sadistic impulses, indoctrinated beliefs, and substance abuse".^[164] Commenting on the study, Philip Coons stated that patients were held together in a ward dedicated to dissociative disorders with ample opportunity to socialize, and that the memories were recovered through the use of hypnosis (which he considered questionable).^[120] No cases were referred to law enforcement for verification, nor was verification attempted through family members. Coons also pointed out that existing injuries could have been self-inflicted, that the experiences reported were "strikingly similar" and that "many of the SRA reports developed while patients were hospitalized".^[97] The reliability of memories of DID clients who alleged SRA in treatment has been questioned and a point of contention in the popular media and with clinicians; many of the allegations made are fundamentally impossible and alleged survivors lack the physical scars that would result were their allegations true.^[24]

Many women claiming to be SRA survivors have been diagnosed as sufferers of DID, and it is unclear if their claims of childhood abuse are accurate or a manifestation of their diagnosis.^[174] Of a sample of 29 patients who presented with SRA, 22 were diagnosed with dissociative disorders including DID. The authors noted that 58 percent of the SRA claims appeared in the years following the Geraldo Rivera special on SRA and a further 34 percent following a workshop on SRA presented in the area; in only two patients were the memories elicited without the use of "questionable therapeutic practices for memory retrieval."^[120] Claims of SRA by DID patients have been called "...often nothing more than fantastic pseudomemories implanted or reinforced in psychotherapy"^[175] and SRA a cultural script of the perception of DID.^[176] Some believe that memories of SRA are solely iatrogenically implanted memories from suggestive therapeutic techniques,^[177]^[178] though this has been criticized by Daniel Brown, Alan Scheflin and Corydon Hammond for what they argue as over-reaching the scientific data that supports an iatrogenic theory.^[179] Others have criticized Hammond specifically for using therapeutic techniques to gather information from clients that rely solely on information fed by the therapist in a manner that highly suggests iatrogenesis.^[177] Skeptics claimed that the increase in DID diagnosis on the 1980s and 1990s and its association with memories of SRA is evidence of malpractice by treating professionals.^[180]

Much of the body of literature on the treatment of ritually abused patients focuses on dissociative disorders.^[97]^[181]

False memories[edit]

One explanation for the SRA allegations is that they were based upon false memories caused by the over-use of hypnosis and other suggestive techniques by therapists underestimating the suggestibility of their clients.^[182] The altered state of consciousness induced by hypnosis rendered patients an unusual ability to produce confabulations, often with the assistance of their therapists.^[183] Advocates of false memory syndrome (FMS), a controversial term promoted by the False Memory Syndrome Foundation, claim that the purported "memories" of ritual abuse are actually false memories, created iatrogenically through suggestion or coercion.^[97] The FMSF has used the idea of ritual abuse as a strategy to illustrate their position that most allegations of sexual abuse uncovered by the suggestive techniques used during recovered memory therapy are false "memories" of events that never happened. According to Kathleen Faller this has contributed to the sensationalization of the ritual abuse cases in the media.^[184]

Paul R. McHugh, professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University discusses in his book Try to Remember the developments that led to the creation of false memories in the SRA moral panic and the formation of the FMSF as an effort to bring contemporary scientific research and political action to the polarizing struggle about false memories within the mental health disciplines. According to McHugh, there is no coherent scientific basis for the core belief of one side of the struggle, that sexual abuse can cause massive systemic repression of memories that can only be accessed through hypnosis, coercive interviews and other dubious techniques. The group of psychiatrists who promoted these ideas, whom McHugh terms "Mannerist Freudians", consistently followed a deductive approach to diagnosis in which the theory and causal explanation of symptoms was assumed to be childhood sexual abuse leading to dissociation, followed by a set of unproven and unreliable treatments with a strong confirmation bias that inevitably produced the allegations and causes that were assumed to be there.

The treatment approach involved isolation of the patient from friends and family within psychiatric wards dedicated to the treatment of dissociation, filled with other patients who were treated by the same doctors with the same flawed methods and staff members who also coherently and universally ascribed to the same set of beliefs. These methods began in the 1980s and continued for several years until a series of court cases and medical malpractice lawsuits resulted in hospitals failing to support the approach. In cases where the dissociative symptoms were ignored, the coercive treatment approach ceased and the patients were removed from dedicated wards, allegations of satanic rape and abuse normally ceased, "recovered" memories were identified as fabrications and conventional treatments for presenting symptoms were generally successful.^[185]

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Did you see how they deflect any notion of this being perpetrated by elites or the 1% Satanic Elites or don't even really mention something along that line as totally absurd... Its the same with Satanic ritual child abuse Look how from the very start they leave off the word Satanic and just call it Ritual Child Abuse Remember to watch out for half truth and doublespeak and using humor to deflect validity and belief away from the real true story now see how they deflect away from anything Satanic or Luciferian in nature having to do with ritual child abuse as nonsensical or just that rumors or young teenager doing it because of heavy metal music, but not a peep about the 1% Satanic elite see for yourself read on belo

Ritual child abuse

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rituals are a principal aspect of many cultures and subcultures. Ritualistic practices involve the cross-generational expression and transmission of the beliefs, traditions and world views of both religious and secular groups.^[1] Ritual child abuse in particular is defined as the involvement of children in physical, psychological or sexual abuse associated with repeated activities which purport to relate the abuse to contexts of a religious, magical, supernatural, medical or cultural kind.^[2]

The use of both religious and non-religious belief systems as a motivating factor underlying ritualistic practices is a common characteristic of ritual child abuse.^[3] While the term ‘abuse’ has been employed due to these practices often having particularly negative physical and psychological health effects on children that are deemed a violation of human rights by the International NGO Council on Violence against Children, it must be noted that many of the cultural groups engaging in these rituals do not see them as abuse but rather significant indicators of maturation, beauty, chastity, health and social standing in their respective communities.^[4] Regions exhibiting a prevalence of ritual child abuse include Sub-Saharan Africa, South-East Asia and the Middle-East.

The introduction to the 2006 report of the UN Secretary-General's Study on Violence against Children notes: “In every region, in contradiction to human rights obligations and children’s developmental needs, violence against children is socially approved and is frequently legal and state authorized.”^[3]

Ritual child abuse is distinct from organized child sexual abuse and satanic ritual abuse, although the latter two forms of abuse can be included in the former as a subset. In 1991, the newly established concept of ritual child abuse was officially acknowledged as a subset of organized abuse in a revised edition of the Working Together under the Children Act produced by the Department of Health in 1989.^[3]

Types[edit]

Birth superstitions[edit]

Certain types of births could lead to violence, abandonment and murder based on families superstition that a child born through such a birth could be an omen of bad luck, a user of witchcraft or demonic, among other beliefs. These types of births include multiple births where more than one child is born at the same time; the birth order and the sex of the child such as a boy born after multiple girl children or vice versa; premature births; quick births where the child comes out of the birthing canal very fast; and the infant having an unusual birth position during the labor period.^[5] Such newborns can be ostracized from society and maltreated by their family and other community members.

Historical Origins[edit]

In the early 19th century, superstitions about cauls originated in Great Britain and Rome.^[6] Superstitions regarding multiple births originated in Onitsha, Nigeria in the early 20th century.^[7]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Twin-killing is practiced in the traditional society of Igbo in Nigeria.^[8] A 1993 study found that 9% of 619 women interviewed in the rural areas of Efik, Ibibio and Annang tribes of South-Eastern Nigeria held a taboo against twins. 2.3% and 2.6% of mothers respectively rejected or killed their twins.^[8] Moreover, in some African countries like Kenya, there is much superstition surrounding babies that are born with teeth.^[9] A 1992 survey in Nigeria revealed that 4% of 622 people said that they would get rid of a child that had developed teeth prematurely.^[10]

Health Consequences[edit]

Some physical consequences include malnutrition, deprivation and neglect, physical violence and, in extreme cases, death. Some psychological consequences include depression and post traumatic stress disorder, often arising from shame and social isolation.^[11]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

In 2003, the Committee on the Rights of the Child in Madagascar noted: "The Committee notes that the murder or rejection of children thought to be 'born on an unlucky day' is beginning to disappear, but remains deeply concerned that such murders still occur and at the rejection or abandonment of twins in the Mananjary region."^[11] In 2004, the Christian missionary Steven Olusola Ajayi opened a shelter called the Vine Heritage Home to house children that were abandoned due to these birth superstitions.^[12]

Bloodletting[edit]

Bloodletting is the practice of draining a child's body of ‘bad blood’, which is believed to be a way to treat a variety of illnesses ranging from fever and headaches to rheumatism and meningitis. It is practiced through puncturing or cutting a child's arm or scalp.^[11] Three different types of procedures used to perform the act of bloodletting are cupping, leeching and phlebotomy.^[13]

Historical Origins[edit]

Bloodletting is considered to have originated in Ancient Egypt and Greece. During the 3rd century B.C., physicians such as Erasistratus believed that all illnesses stemmed from a plethora of blood.^[14] In the 2nd century A.D., Galen promoted Hippocrates' theory on the necessary balance between the 4 "humours" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile - to maintain good health.^[15] It is suggested that the practice of bloodletting has persisted through time because it is a readily available measure to people of all socioeconomic statuses.^[16]

Regional Statistics[edit]

The traditional practice of bloodletting through incisions and surgical methods is practiced in limited regions such as Tajikistan and Ethiopia. In Tajikistan, the practice is referred to as 'kolak', involving making small cuts on the roof of the mouth, back, chest or stomach of infants to release bad blood.^[11] It is repeated as frequently as 3 to 4 times per week. In Ethiopia, bloodletting continues to be practiced despite communities demonstrating high rates of understanding the health consequences of the practice.^[11]

The modern practice of bloodletting is through leeching.^[17] Leeching, or hirudotherapy, involves the use of leeches for the practice of bloodletting or medical therapy.^[18] Leeching is popularly practiced worldwide for a variety of medical conditions, including skin diseases, nervous disorders, pains, fissures and certain infections.^[19]

Health Consequences[edit]

Some of the health consequences of bloodletting include severe bleeding, anemia, infections, the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases and, in extreme cases, death. In women, it could also lead to irregular menstruation.^[13] Leech therapy could lead to infections with certain bacterial species such as Aeromonas hydrophilia, Aeromonas veronii and Mycobacterium marinum, excessive bleeding, and in some cases, thrombotic microangiopathy, leading to renal failure.^[19]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

In 2010, the California Department of Consumer Affairs (DCA) forbid the practice of Chinese bloodletting by licensed acupuncturists on account of allegations on unsanitary methods of conducting the procedure.^[20] In 2004, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared the first application for leeches to be used in modern medical therapy.^[21] Medicinal leeches are regulated by Health Canada under the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations.^[22]

Breast flattening[edit]

Breast flattening or breast ironing is a procedure involving pushing or massaging hot objects such as stones or hammers into a girl's breasts to prevent them from growing. Other tools used include wooden pestles, spatulas, brooms, belts and leaves.^[23] The girls are usually between 8 and 12 years of age.^[24] In 58% of the cases, the act is performed by the mother. However, it may also be performed by a nurse, caretaker, aunt, older sister, grandmother, the girl herself or another member of the community, usually a female. The severity of the practice ranges from using hot leaves to massage the girl's breasts to using hot stones to crush the budding gland. The procedure is believed to reduce sexual urges in girls, preventing them from getting pregnant at an early age and also reduce the likelihood of the girl getting raped or sexually assaulted.^[24]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Nearly 1 in 4 schoolgirls in Cameroon report been subjected to the practice.^[25] Other regions where breast ironing is practiced are Central and West Africa.^[24] A large scale representative study by the German Society for International Cooperation (GIZ) found a large variety of the prevalence of the practice in different regions, ranging from 53% of women having undergone breast flattening in the Littoral region of Cameroon to 7% of women in the Northern regions.^[26]

Health Consequences[edit]

Some physical consequences include swelling, burning, irritation, pimples on the breasts, fever, extreme pain, long term overgrowth of one or both of the breasts or alternatively the failure of either breast to grow, abscesses, breast cancer and problems with breastfeeding.^[27] Some psychological consequences include depression and psychological distress from social isolation and experiencing fear and shame.^[27]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

The German Cameroonian Health Sector Program (GIZ) and the National Network of Aunties (RENATA) are non-governmental organizations that are campaigning on behalf of girls that have undergone breast flattening.^[25] The Cameroonian Government signed a joint action agreement with Plan International, an organization that has been working on collecting testimonials from girls about their experiences, to encourage victims to come forward and advocate against the practice.^[28] Some domestic and international are petitioning to criminalize the practice.^[26]

Cosmetic mutilation[edit]

Cosmetic mutilation is a secular form of ritual violence that is concentrated on females in particular due to the belief that it enhances beauty. In its mildest form, this can include things as basic as ear piercing, which is common during infancy in most countries throughout the world including west European cultures.^[29] Neck rings are an example of cosmetic mutilation in which heavy metal rings are placed around the neck of girls at timed intervals until she has reached womanhood or a suitable age to be married.^[29] This ritual is motivated by the belief that it enhances beauty and wealth and is most common in Asia and Southern Africa.^[29] Lip plates involve making cuts on a girl's lips or ears and inserting a plate to stretch the lip or body part to the desired shape.^[29] This is also done to enhance beauty. The lip plate ritual is most commonly practiced in parts of Ethiopia and Brazil. In India, it is common for people in the state Chhattisgarh to tattoo names of local deities on to the foreheads or arms of their children, at ages as young as five.^[30]

Historical Origins[edit]

Tattooing has been practiced by humans as far back as Neolithic times, though its precise use in rituals involving children varies from region to region. Tattoos have been used as cultural and religious symbols among many tribal populations in India for hundreds of years, most notably by the Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh.^[31] In this region, young girls were tattooed on their faces to make them unappealing to the rival tribes of the neighboring districts so these tribes would not abduct them.^[31]

Lip plates have been employed by tribes across Ethiopia, Tanzania and Mozambique for centuries. In Brazil, some tribes including the Suyá and Botocudo have traditionally seen both men and women wearing lip plates. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, African women donning lip plates were transported to Europe and North America for to be showcased for public entertainment in circuses.

Neck rings were first identified by Marco Polo in c.1300.

Regional Statistics[edit]

There are an estimated 10,000 members of the Mursi tribe from Southern Ethiopia with lip plates.^[32]

Health Consequences[edit]

In extreme cases, cosmetic mutilation can cause severe pain to the child not just once but at regular intervals, which is the case for neck rings and lip plates. The weight of the rings alters the growth of the ribs, shoulders, and clavicles, and could potentially crush a child's collarbones.^[33] In Myanmar, it is common for girls aged two to five in the Kayan culture to wear brass collars until their collarbone is deformed.^[34]

Lip plates can cause infection or malnutrition as the child may not eat due to pain caused by moving her lips.^[34]

Tattooing children can result in exposure to infectious diseases including methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), hepatitis B and hepatitis C from either the needle or open wound.^[35]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

In 1962, due to the institution of a new government, new laws were enacted in Burma prohibiting any enactment of the neck ring ritual. In order to preserve their culture, customs, and identity, the Padaung fled to Thailand.^[36]

In 1984, the Commission on Human Rights adopted its first resolution on “traditional practices affecting the health of women and children” (1984/48, 13 March 1984) and the issue became a regular item on the Commission's (now the Human Rights Council's) agenda.^[34]

Cursing[edit]

Cursing is a form of ritual violence that is a subset of witchcraft. Cursing rituals usually stem from an overarching belief in some sort of witchcraft or “Juju,” in which certain deities or spirits are used as a way to coerce the child into subservience.^[37] This subservience often results in children being involved in trafficking or sexual exploitation.^[38] Often, children are also accused of being possessed or witches. Usually, a child will be asked to provide some of their hair, blood or personal belongings to the trafficker which will be contained in a ‘packet,’ after which he or she is taken to a shrine or graveyard to swear an oath as part of the ritual.^[37] The oath may be designed to guarantee beauty or prosperity for the child, and is a means by which the child can be prevented from speaking out about his or her experiences, from running away, or as a method of ensuring that they work off a ‘debt’.^[37] The ‘debt’ is often so high that the child is unable to ever pay it off. Frequent reports from victims refer to these practices as ‘voodoo’ or ‘juju’, but there are many other descriptions depending on their country of origin namely, ‘kindoki’, ‘ndoki’, ‘djinns’, or ‘obeah.’^[37]

Historical Origins[edit]

Cursing rituals involving both children and adults date back to ancient times, but resurfaced in a contemporary setting around 1969 with the advent of LaVeyan Satanism. Many cursing rituals around the world were largely aggravated by the Satanic panic phenomenon, which was particularly prevalent in South Africa.

Regional Statistics[edit]

In Nigeria, thousands of children are accused of witchcraft by their families per annum and abused or killed as a result.^[39] According to a UN report on voodoo rituals, hundreds of children have been kidnapped and brought to the UK for religious rituals, with thousands more being smuggled in for sexual exploitation and slavery.^[40] The 2012 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons presented the following gender and age profile of victims across the world in 2009: girls − 17% and boys − 10%, a large portion of which is concentrated in Europe.^[41]

Health Consequences[edit]

In extreme cases, cursing rituals can result in physical injury or death due to the requirement of the child to hurt himself or herself as part of the ritual oath.^[37] Such rituals can also result in lifelong trauma, inducing depression or PTSD.^[42]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

The state governor of Akwa Ibom state in Nigeria passed a law making it illegal to accuse a child of witchcraft in 2012.^[43] The European Parliamentary Research Service has suggested that the use of multiple identities for small children in child trafficking is facilitated through the fact that EURODAC does not require the fingerprints of children under five years of age to be taken, and could be altered.^[43]

Dowry and bride price[edit]

Dowry describes any practice where commodities, money, or services or some combination of all three are exchanged in return for a bride, provided by one of the families daughters. Dowry typically refers to what a bride's family pays, while bride price refers to what the groom's family pays. Many of the same factors that push families to perform FGM on their daughters are present here as well, so there is a high correlation between the two practices.^[44] Some relevant cultural forces to practice dowry and bride price are:

Increases the odds that a woman will maintain her premarital virginity and martial fidelity.
Has been practiced for generations as a cultural tradition.

This treatment or preparation may start in early childhood for women, since it is important to safeguard the daughter's virginity as early as possible, but also to shift the “burden” that the daughter represents to the other family. Some families may not be able to afford the dowry or are forced to pay greater amounts over time, which may force other members of the family to begin working.^[4] This disproportionately puts young girls at risk, not to mention precludes poor young men from being able to marry. Currently, the bride price system is more widely practice in parts of Africa, while the dowry system exists primarily in South Asia.

Historical Origins[edit]

This is a phenomenon that has its roots all over the world and across time periods, to as early as before 0 CE. In some form, this practice existed in Babylon, Greece, the Roman Empire, and various other societies in East Asia, Europe, and the Americas.^[45]^[46]^[47]

Regional Statistics[edit]

The use of dowry and bride price continues to be active around the Indian subcontinent. In 2006, there were 7600 dowry-related deaths in India, however, some there is wide variation in estimates given, because of how prevalent dowry and dowry abuse can be, not to mention the amount of resources that would be required to compile a comprehensive survey of the practice. In India, for 2001, there were 163,000 fire-related deaths of women aged 15–44; this figure collected by the World Health Organization is six times the amount given in the national crime statistics.^[48] In Southeast Asia, fire-related deaths is the third most common cause of death for women aged 15–44, while for women worldwide, it is the seventh most common.^[48]

Health Consequences[edit]

Dowry demands when left unsatisfied, often translate into violence being perpetrated against the new wives by the husbands and his families. Dowry-related violence can consist of acid burning, fire burning, physical abuse, or even the murder of newly married women when conflicts arise regarding the fulfillment of the dowry. This violence and practice is born from communities that practice son preference or preferentially value males over females. This practice reinforces other forms of abuse, such as the previously mentioned son preference or child marriage,^[49] as parents attempt to rid themselves of the burden of having a daughter.

Policy Initiatives[edit]

In Pakistan, like India, despite the prevalence of the dowry practice and associated violence and murders, related cases are rarely seen in the justice system, with convictions being even rarer.^[50] In India, the first nationwide anti-dowry law, the Dowry Prohibition Act, was passed in 1961.^[51] There have been other anti-dowry laws since to support this legislation, however, dowry continues to be a common practice. Many Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian nations may legally permit dowry and even for those who do not, the state is still developing and unable to efficiently restrict it.

Food taboos[edit]

Food taboos describes the practice of restricting diets based on some combination of social, religious, health, or other reasons. Food taboos may be controversial in the sense that they may force individuals to forego certain types of foods which may not appear to be unhealthy at all. This is just one way that food taboos may be culturally constructed and as such, may have developed some communal permanency and references that makes it difficult to change.^[52] Food taboos and how they are practiced may occur passively or actively. This means that, for children especially, individuals will be forced to forego certain, nutritious foods based on superstitious or cultural beliefs. Food taboos also encompasses when people are forced to consume certain foods in a specific manner. Young boys and girls alike are forced to consume or skip types of foods in the interests of developing their sexual or gender performative roles. Pregnant women frequently face additional restrictions or regulation of their diets, ostensibly for their own health as well as that of their child.^[52] Another dimension of food taboos is dictating when consumption occurs, which is why these vulnerable populations have further measures imposed that may result in poor nutrition, stunted growth, increased risk of infection, and more.

Historical Origins[edit]

Food taboos exist across African, South Asian (e.g. Malaysia, Papua New Guinea), Jewish, and others societies around the world.^[53] There are functionalist, but also cultural, spiritual, and other explanations for the emergence of food taboos. Many non-functionalist food taboos emerged from concerns about inefficient resource allocation, possible allergens, or unhealthy for certain types of individuals, which are conditions that are easily met or discovered.^[52]

Regional Statistics[edit]

In Nigeria, there is a food taboo against all people from eating snakes, cats, newly harvested yams, dogs, pork, and more. These restrictions account for why despite Nigeria's abundant food supply, malnutrition and hunger still afflicts much of the nation.^[54]

Health Consequences[edit]

Food taboos can lead to malnutrition, disease, mental stunting, and death.^[55] The limited access to certain nutrients that food taboos impose often afflict mothers and young boys and girls. The food taboos often come from a concern about the social or physical health of the individuals, however, communities may unwittingly be negatively contributing to the well-being of these people. Food taboos can also force boys and girls to consume copious amounts of certain foods, based on the belief that it will aid in their physical or sexual development.^[4]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Because food taboos often have religious backing, religious governments may actually protect or enforce food taboos as part of their legal system. Food taboos are practiced in Muslim and Indian religious communities, such as Hinduism, Vaishnavism, Jainism, and Islam. Because food taboos in countries like Nigeria, where access to protein may be difficult, especially for at-risk peoples, such as women and children, local and international organizations have been taking steps to remove food taboos and educate communities about nutritious eating choices.^[54] Leading by example but also formal education are two of the methods being used.

Female genital mutilation (FGM)[edit]

The most common form of cosmetic mutilation focused on females is Female Genital Mutilation or FGM. This involves surgical removal of parts of sensitive female genital organs. Often, this ritual represents a rite of passage, marking a female child's coming of age. It is also conducted to ensure a woman's virginity and decrease prospects of her engaging in sexual activity before marriage.^[4]

Historical Origins[edit]

The practice of FGM is said to predate Christianity and Islam.^[56] In ancient Rome, metal rings were passed through the labia minora of slaves to prevent them from having children and in medieval England, metal chastity belts were worn by women to mitigate promiscuity during their husbands' absence.^[56] Examination of mummified bodies have shown that in ancient Egypt, both excision and infibulation were carried out.^[56] In addition to nineteenth century England, tsarist Russia, France and America have experienced the widespread practice of clitoridectomy.^[56] In England and America, FGM was performed on women as a "cure" for numerous psychological ailments.^[56]

Regional Statistics[edit]

According to a 2013 UNICEF report covering 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East, Ethiopia has the region's highest total number of women that have undergone FGM (27.2 million), while Somalia has the highest percentage (prevalence) of FGM (98%).^[57] Data also shows that girls 14 and younger represent 44 million of those who have been cut, with the highest prevalence of FGM among this age in Gambia at 56%, Mauritania at 54% and Indonesia where around half of girls aged 11 and younger have undergone the practice. Countries with the highest prevalence among girls and women aged 15 to 49 are Somalia (98%), Guinea (97%) and Djibouti (93%).^[57]

Health Consequences[edit]

Contrary to popular belief, there are no health benefits to FGM. FGM can lead to a series of health complications including blood-transmitted diseases like HIV/AIDS.^[56] Haemorrhage, infection and acute pain are the immediate consequences.^[56] Keloid formation, infertility as a result of infection, obstructed labour and psychological complications are potential long-term effects. In rural areas where untrained traditional birth attendants perform the operations, complications resulting from deep cuts and infected instruments can cause the death of the child.^[56]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

In July 2003, at its second summit, the African Union adopted the Maputo Protocol promoting women's rights and calling for an end to FGM. The agreement came into force in November 2005, and by December 2008, 25 member countries had ratified it.^[56] The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was ratified by 136 States as of January 1995 and classifies FGM as a primary concern. The Convention obliges States parties, in general, to "pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women."^[56]

Male Circumcision[edit]

Male circumcision involves the removal of the foreskin from the penis.^[58] It is a surgical procedure in which the foreskin is opened and separated from the glans.^[59] The procedure is most commonly performed on children for religious and cultural reasons.^[60] It can also be performed for the treatment of certain medical conditions such as urinary tract infections, phimosis and balanoposthitis.^[61]

Historical Origins[edit]

The origins of circumcision date back to 2400 B.C.E. in Egypt, where an engraving of an adult male being circumcised was found in the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara. It is believed that the Egyptians practiced circumcision for hygiene and also because of their obsession with purity, which was associated with intellectual and spiritual development.^[62] During the 4th millennium B.C., circumcision was practiced by the Sumerians and Semites in the Arabian Peninsula.^[63] Circumcision features in the narrative of Genesis Chapter 17 of the Hebrew Bible, where the circumcision of Abraham and his relatives is described.^[64] The practice is thought to have been brought to Africa by the Bantu-speaking tribes.^[63]

Regional Statistics[edit]

39% of males worldwide are circumcised, out of which 50% undergo the procedure for religious or cultural reasons.^[65]

Region	Prevalence (as of 2007)^[60]
United States	75%
Canada	30%
Europe	<20%
Australia	58.7%
Taiwan	9%
South Africa	20%
North and West Africa	~100%

In 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that out of the 30% of males under 15 that had been circumcised globally, 70% were Muslim.

Health Consequences[edit]

The opinion of major health organizations on the practice of circumcision varies due to its potential health benefits.^[66] For example, the World Health Organization recommends the practice of circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa to prevent HIV.^[67] However, the controversy over legal rights and informed consent arises when the practice of circumcision is performed for non-medical reasons.^[68] In 2010, a review found that practitioners have complications regarding the procedure 1.5% of the times when the patient is an infant and 6% of the times when the patient is a child.^[69] Complications include bleeding, the removal of too much or too little foreskin and infections.^[69] The procedure on infants could lead to heightened pain responses, such as during vaccinations, later on.^[70] Infants may also experience changes in sleeping patterns, irritability, caretaker-bonding and changes in feeding.^[71]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

The World Health Organization (2010) and the International AIDS Society-USA (2007) recommend the use of circumcision in regions with high HIV rates.^[72] Regarding general circumcision, the British Medical Journal published an article in 1949 stating that there was no medical benefit from generally circumcising males.^[60] The Canadian Pediatric Society released a statement in the 1970s stating that the procedure of male circumcision was not medically indicated.^[60] Such initiatives have been seen to reduce circumcision rates in the UK and Canada respectively.^[60]

Swaddling[edit]

Swaddling, or the binding of an infant, involves wrapping them in a cloth to restrict the physical movements of their body, except the head. The materials used to wrap infants usually include cotton blankets and cotton muslin wraps. Swaddling is believed to help soothe irritable infants and reduce the frequency of awakenings while the infant is sleeping.^[73]

Historical Origins[edit]

It is a common notion amongst several authors that swaddling began in the Paleolithic period.^[74] The earliest depictions of swaddling are votive statuettes of swaddled babies found in the tombs of Ancient Greek and Roman women who died during the process of childbirth. These have been found in Crete and Cyprus and date back around 4500 years.^[75]

Another popular record of swaddling is in the New Testament about the birth of Jesus in Luke [2:6-2:7]: And so it was, that, while they were there, the days were accomplished that she should be delivered. And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn. The swaddling clothes described in the Bible were bandage-like strips.

Regional Statistics[edit]

Studies from the Human Relations Area Files show that 39% of all documented, contemporary, non-industrialized cultures practice swaddling.^[76] 93/1% of infants in Turkey are swaddled.^[77] In Britain, 19.4% of infants are swaddled.^[78] Research indicates the growing popularity of swaddling in the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands.^[79]

Health Consequences[edit]

Some of the prominent health consequences of swaddling are mentioned below. Swaddling increases the risk for hip dysplasia.^[80]^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]^[85]^[86] Tight swaddling can lead to hyperthermia.^[87] The risk of developing respiratory infections is increased.^[88] There is also a delayed recovery from post-natal weight loss.^[89]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

There are no direct policies regarding the practice of swaddling. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) claims that when done correctly, swaddling serves to calm babies. The AAP has released a document on safe sleep recommendations.^[90] The Government of South Australia has also provided guidelines on how to safely swaddle infants.^[91]

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Wikipedia's real function as an Elite gatekeeper tool!!! Its not a learning platform as most believe it to be But Rather a Truth Gate where many truth are kept shut and locked behind its public Face of deception

Satanic ritual abuse

History[edit]

Historical precedents[edit]

Michelle Remembers and the McMartin preschool trial[edit]

Conspiracy accusations[edit]

Religious roots and secularization[edit]

International spread[edit]

Skepticism, rejection and contemporary existence[edit]

Definitions[edit]

Cult-based abuse[edit]

Criminal and delusional satanism[edit]

Acting out[edit]

Polarization[edit]

Evidence[edit]

Investigations[edit]

United Kingdom[edit]

United States[edit]

Patient allegations[edit]

Children's allegations[edit]

Skepticism[edit]

As a moral panic[edit]

Origins of the rumors[edit]

Scholarly and law enforcement investigations[edit]

Court cases[edit]

Dissociative identity disorder[edit]

False memories[edit]

Ritual child abuse

Types[edit]

Birth superstitions[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Bloodletting[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Breast flattening[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Cosmetic mutilation[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Cursing[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Dowry and bride price[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Food taboos[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Female genital mutilation (FGM)[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Male Circumcision[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

Swaddling[edit]

Historical Origins[edit]

Regional Statistics[edit]

Health Consequences[edit]

Policy Initiatives[edit]

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